Part 1 · General Physiology — Cell, Membrane and Body Fluids
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Osmotic pressure π = σ·i·C·R·T (van 't Hoff with reflection coefficient σ). Each 1 mOsm/kg gradient generates ≈ 19.3 mmHg — so small osmolality differences move large volumes of water. Tonicity depends only on effective osmoles (σ ≈ 1 at the cell membrane: Na⁺ and its anions, glucose without insulin, mannitol); urea and ethanol are ineffective because they equilibrate.
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